āĻ āϧā§āϝāĻžā§ ā§¨: āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύā§āϝāĻŧ āϏāĻžāĻŽā§āϰāĻžāĻā§āϝ – āϰāĻāύāĻžāϧāϰā§āĻŽā§ āĻĒā§āϰāĻļā§āύ (āĻŽāĻžāύ – ā§Ž) āĻĒā§āϰāĻļā§āύ ā§§: āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύā§āϰ āĻ āĻā§āϝāύā§āϤāϰā§āĻŖ āϏāĻāϏā§āĻāĻžāϰāĻā§āϞāĻŋ āĻāϞā§āĻāύāĻž āĻāϰā§āĨ¤ (āĻŦāĻŋāĻļā§āώāϤ ‘āĻā§āĻĄ āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύ’-āĻāϰ āĻāĻĒāϰ āĻā§āϰā§āϤā§āĻŦ āĻĻāĻŋā§ā§) āĻā§āĻŽāĻŋāĻāĻž: āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύ āĻŦā§āύāĻžāĻĒāĻžāϰā§āĻ āĻā§āĻŦāϞ āĻāĻāĻāύ āĻĻāĻŋāĻāĻŦāĻŋāĻā§ā§ āĻŦā§āϰāĻ āĻāĻŋāϞā§āύ āύāĻž, āϤāĻŋāύāĻŋ āĻāĻŋāϞā§āύ āĻāĻāĻāύ āϏā§āĻĻāĻā§āώ āĻĒā§āϰāĻļāĻžāϏāĻ āĻ āϏāĻāϏā§āĻāĻžāϰāĻāĨ¤ āϤāĻŋāύāĻŋ …
āĻ āϧā§āϝāĻžā§ ā§¨: āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύā§āϰ āϏāĻžāĻŽā§āϰāĻžāĻā§āϝ – āĻŦāĻŋāĻļā§āϞā§āώāĻŖāϧāϰā§āĻŽā§ āĻĒā§āϰāĻļā§āύ 1. āĻā§āĻĄ āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύ (Code Napoleon) āĻŦāĻž āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύā§āϰ āĻāĻāύāĻŦāĻŋāϧāĻŋāϰ āĻŦā§āĻļāĻŋāώā§āĻā§āϝāĻā§āϞāĻŋ āĻāϞā§āĻāύāĻž āĻāϰā§āĨ¤ āĻŦāĻŋāϏā§āϤāĻžāϰāĻŋāϤ āĻāϤā§āϤāϰ āĻā§āĻŽāĻŋāĻāĻž: āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύ āĻŦā§āύāĻžāĻĒāĻžāϰā§āĻā§āϰ āϏāϰā§āĻŦāĻļā§āϰā§āώā§āĻ āĻā§āϰā§āϤāĻŋ āĻšāĻ˛ā§ ā§§ā§Žā§Ļā§Ē āϏāĻžāϞ⧠āĻĒā§āϰāĻŦāϰā§āϤāĻŋāϤ ‘āϏāĻŋāĻāĻŋāϞ āĻā§āĻĄ’ āĻŦāĻž ‘āĻā§āĻĄ āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύ’āĨ¤ āϤāĻŋāύāĻŋ āĻĢā§āϰāĻžāύā§āϏā§āϰ āĻŦāĻŋāĻāĻŋāύā§āύ āϏā§āĻĨāĻžāύā§āϰ āĻŦāĻŋāĻāĻŋāϤā§āϰ āĻāĻāύāĻā§ …
āĻ āϧā§āϝāĻžā§ ā§¨: āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋā§āύā§āϰ āϏāĻžāĻŽā§āϰāĻžāĻā§āϝ – āϏāĻāĻā§āώāĻŋāĻĒā§āϤ āĻĒā§āϰāĻļā§āύ 1. āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύ āύāĻŋāĻā§āĻā§ ‘āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦā§āϰ āϏāύā§āϤāĻžāύ’ āĻŦāϞāϤā§āύ āĻā§āύ? āĻāϤā§āϤāϰ āĻĻā§āĻā§ āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦ āύāĻž āĻšāϞ⧠āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύā§āϰ āĻŽāϤ⧠āϏāĻžāϧāĻžāϰāĻŖ āĻĒāϰāĻŋāĻŦāĻžāϰā§āϰ āϏāύā§āϤāĻžāύā§āϰ āĻĒāĻā§āώ⧠āĻĢā§āϰāĻžāύā§āϏā§āϰ āĻļāĻžāϏāĻ āĻšāĻā§āĻž āϏāĻŽā§āĻāĻŦ āĻāĻŋāϞ āύāĻžāĨ¤ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦ āϝ⧠āĻŽā§āϧāĻžāϰ āϏā§āĻŦā§āĻā§āϤāĻŋ āĻ āϏāĻžāĻŽā§āϝā§āϰ āϏā§āϝā§āĻ āϤā§āϰāĻŋ …
āĻ āϧā§āϝāĻžā§ ā§¨: āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦā§ āĻāĻĻāϰā§āĻļ, āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋāϝāĻŧāύā§āϝāĻŧ āϏāĻžāĻŽā§āϰāĻžāĻā§āϝ āĻ āϝā§āĻĻā§āϧ (Revolutionary Ideals, Napoleonic Empire and War) āĻā§āĻŽāĻŋāĻāĻž (Introduction) ā§§ā§ā§¯ā§¯ āĻā§āϰāĻŋāώā§āĻāĻžāĻŦā§āĻĻā§ āĻĄāĻžāĻāϰā§āĻā§āĻāϰāĻŋ āĻļāĻžāϏāύā§āϰ āĻ āĻŦāϏāĻžāύ āĻāĻāĻŋā§ā§ āύā§āĻĒā§āϞāĻŋā§āύ āĻŦā§āύāĻžāĻĒāĻžāϰā§āĻ āĻĢā§āϰāĻžāύā§āϏā§āϰ āĻā§āώāĻŽāϤāĻž āĻĻāĻāϞ āĻāϰā§āύāĨ¤ āϤāĻŋāύāĻŋ āύāĻŋāĻā§āĻā§ ‘āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦā§āϰ āϏāύā§āϤāĻžāύ’ āĻŦāϞ⧠āĻĻāĻžāĻŦāĻŋ āĻāϰāϤā§āύāĨ¤ ā§§ā§Žā§Ļā§Ē āϏāĻžāϞ⧠āϤāĻŋāύāĻŋ āύāĻŋāĻā§āĻā§ ‘āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ …
āĻ āϧā§āϝāĻžā§ ā§§: āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦ – āϰāĻāύāĻžāϧāϰā§āĻŽā§ āĻĒā§āϰāĻļā§āύ (āĻŽāĻžāύ – ā§Ž) āĻĒā§āϰāĻļā§āύ ā§§: ā§§ā§ā§Žā§¯ āĻā§āϰāĻŋāώā§āĻāĻžāĻŦā§āĻĻā§āϰ āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦā§āϰ āϰāĻžāĻāύā§āϤāĻŋāĻ, āϏāĻžāĻŽāĻžāĻāĻŋāĻ āĻ āĻ āϰā§āĻĨāύā§āϤāĻŋāĻ āĻāĻžāϰāĻŖāĻā§āϞāĻŋ āĻāϞā§āĻāύāĻž āĻāϰā§āĨ¤ (⧍+ā§Š+ā§Š) āĻā§āĻŽāĻŋāĻāĻž: ā§§ā§ā§Žā§¯ āĻā§āϰāĻŋāώā§āĻāĻžāĻŦā§āĻĻā§ āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦ āĻā§āύ⧠āĻāĻāϏā§āĻŽāĻŋāĻ āĻāĻāύāĻž āĻāĻŋāϞ āύāĻžāĨ¤ āĻĻā§āϰā§āĻāĻĻāĻŋāύā§āϰ āĻĒā§āĻā§āĻā§āĻā§āϤ āϰāĻžāĻāύā§āϤāĻŋāĻ āĻ āύāĻžāĻāĻžāϰ, āϏāĻžāĻŽāĻžāĻāĻŋāĻ āĻŦā§āώāĻŽā§āϝ …
āĻ āϧā§āϝāĻžā§ ā§§: āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦā§āϰ āĻā§ā§āĻāĻāĻŋ āĻĻāĻŋāĻ – āĻŦāĻŋāĻļā§āϞā§āώāĻŖāϧāϰā§āĻŽā§ āĻĒā§āϰāĻļā§āύ 1. āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦā§āϰ āĻĒā§āϰāĻžāĻā§āĻāĻžāϞ⧠āĻĢā§āϰāĻžāύā§āϏā§āϰ āϏāĻŽāĻžāĻ āĻāĻžāĻ āĻžāĻŽā§ āĻā§āĻŽāύ āĻāĻŋāϞ? āĻŦāĻŋāϏā§āϤāĻžāϰāĻŋāϤ āĻāϤā§āϤāϰ āĻā§āĻŽāĻŋāĻāĻž: ā§§ā§ā§Žā§¯ āĻā§āϰāĻŋāϏā§āĻāĻžāĻŦā§āĻĻā§āϰ āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦ āĻāĻŋāϞ āĻŽā§āϞāϤ āĻŦā§āώāĻŽā§āϝāĻŽā§āϞāĻ āϏāĻŽāĻžāĻ āĻŦā§āϝāĻŦāϏā§āĻĨāĻžāϰ āĻŦāĻŋāϰā§āĻĻā§āϧ⧠āĻāĻ āĻĒā§āϰāĻŦāϞ āĻĒā§āϰāϤāĻŋāĻŦāĻžāĻĻāĨ¤ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦā§āϰ āĻĒā§āϰā§āĻŦā§ āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āϏāĻŽāĻžāĻ āϤāĻŋāύāĻāĻŋ āĻļā§āϰā§āĻŖāĻŋāϤ⧠…
āĻ āϧā§āϝāĻžā§ ā§§: āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦ – āϏāĻāĻā§āώāĻŋāĻĒā§āϤ āĻĒā§āϰāĻļā§āύ āĻ āĻāϤā§āϤāϰ (āĻĒāϰā§āĻŦ-ā§§) 1. ‘āĻĒā§āϰāĻžāϤāύ āϤāύā§āϤā§āϰ’ āĻŦāĻž ‘āĻ āĻāϏāĻŋā§āĻž āϰā§āĻāĻŋāĻŽ’ (Ancien Regime) āĻŦāϞāϤ⧠āĻā§ āĻŦā§āĻā§? āĻāϤā§āϤāϰ āĻĻā§āĻā§ ā§§ā§ā§Žā§¯ āĻā§āϰāĻŋāώā§āĻāĻžāĻŦā§āĻĻā§āϰ āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦā§āϰ āĻĒā§āϰā§āĻŦā§ āĻĢā§āϰāĻžāύā§āϏ⧠āϤāĻĨāĻž āĻāĻāϰā§āĻĒā§ āϝ⧠āϰāĻžāĻāύā§āϤāĻŋāĻ, āϏāĻžāĻŽāĻžāĻāĻŋāĻ āĻ āĻ āϰā§āĻĨāύā§āϤāĻŋāĻ āĻŦā§āϝāĻŦāϏā§āĻĨāĻž āĻĒā§āϰāĻāϞāĻŋāϤ āĻāĻŋāϞ, āϤāĻžāĻā§ …
āĻ āϧā§āϝāĻžā§ ā§§: āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦā§āϰ āĻā§ā§āĻāĻāĻŋ āĻĻāĻŋāĻ (Some Aspects of the French Revolution) āĻā§āĻŽāĻŋāĻāĻž (Introduction) āĻāϧā§āύāĻŋāĻ āϝā§āĻā§āϰ āĻāϤāĻŋāĻšāĻžāϏ⧠⧧ā§ā§Žā§¯ āĻā§āϰāĻŋāώā§āĻāĻžāĻŦā§āĻĻā§āϰ āĻĢāϰāĻžāϏāĻŋ āĻŦāĻŋāĻĒā§āϞāĻŦ āĻāĻ āϝā§āĻāĻžāύā§āϤāĻāĻžāϰ⧠āĻāĻāύāĻžāĨ¤ āϏā§āĻ āϏāĻŽā§ āĻĢā§āϰāĻžāύā§āϏā§āϰ āϏāĻŽāĻžāĻāĻŦā§āϝāĻŦāϏā§āĻĨāĻž āĻāĻŋāϞ āĻŦā§āώāĻŽā§āϝāĻŽā§āϞāĻ āĻāĻŦāĻ āϰāĻžāĻāϤāύā§āϤā§āϰ āĻāĻŋāϞ āϏā§āĻŦā§āϰāĻžāĻāĻžāϰā§āĨ¤ āϰāĻžāĻāĻž āώā§ā§āĻļ āϞā§āĻ-āĻāϰ āĻ āĻĒāĻļāĻžāϏāύ, āĻ āϰā§āĻĨāύā§āϤāĻŋāĻ āĻĻā§āĻāϞāĻŋā§āĻžāĻĒāύāĻž …
āĻ āϧā§āϝāĻžā§ ā§: āĻļāĻŦā§āĻĻ – āϰāĻāύāĻžāϧāϰā§āĻŽā§ āĻĒā§āϰāĻļā§āύ (āĻĒāϰā§āĻŦ-ā§§) 1. āĻ āύā§āĻĻā§āϰā§āĻā§āϝ āĻ āϤāĻŋāϰā§āϝāĻ āϤāϰāĻā§āĻā§āϰ āĻŽāϧā§āϝ⧠āϤāĻŋāύāĻāĻŋ āĻĒāĻžāϰā§āĻĨāĻā§āϝ āϞā§āĻā§āĨ¤ (3) āĻāϤā§āϤāϰ āĻĻā§āĻā§ āĻŦāĻŋāώ⧠āĻ āύā§āĻĻā§āϰā§āĻā§āϝ āϤāϰāĻā§āĻ āϤāĻŋāϰā§āϝāĻ āϤāϰāĻā§āĻ āĻāĻŖāĻžāϰ āĻāĻŽā§āĻĒāύ āϤāϰāĻā§āĻ āĻŦāĻŋāϏā§āϤāĻžāϰā§āϰ āϏāĻŽāĻžāύā§āϤāϰāĻžāϞ⧠āĻāĻžāĻāĻĒā§āĨ¤ āϤāϰāĻā§āĻ āĻŦāĻŋāϏā§āϤāĻžāϰā§āϰ āϏāĻžāĻĨā§ āϞāĻŽā§āĻŦāĻāĻžāĻŦā§ āĻāĻžāĻāĻĒā§āĨ¤ āĻāĻ āύ āĻāύā§āĻāĻŦāύ āĻ āϤāύā§āĻāĻŦāύ āϏā§āώā§āĻāĻŋ …
āĻ āϧā§āϝāĻžā§ ā§: āĻļāĻŦā§āĻĻ – āϏāĻāĻā§āώāĻŋāĻĒā§āϤ āĻĒā§āϰāĻļā§āύ 1. āĻļāĻŦā§āĻĻ āĻāĻžāĻā§ āĻŦāϞā§? āĻāĻāĻŋ āĻā§āĻāĻžāĻŦā§ āĻā§āĻĒāύā§āύ āĻšā§? āĻāϤā§āϤāϰ āĻĻā§āĻā§ āϏāĻāĻā§āĻāĻž: āĻļāĻŦā§āĻĻ āĻšāϞ⧠āĻāĻ āĻĒā§āϰāĻāĻžāϰ āĻļāĻā§āϤāĻŋ āϝāĻž āĻā§āύ⧠āĻā§ āĻŽāĻžāϧā§āϝāĻŽā§āϰ āĻŽāϧā§āϝ āĻĻāĻŋā§ā§ āϤāϰāĻā§āĻāĻžāĻāĻžāϰ⧠āĻŦāĻŋāϏā§āϤāĻžāϰ āϞāĻžāĻ āĻāϰ⧠āĻāĻŦāĻ āĻāĻŽāĻžāĻĻā§āϰ āĻāĻžāύ⧠āĻļā§āϰāĻŦāĻŖā§āϰ āĻ āύā§āĻā§āϤāĻŋ āĻāĻžāĻāĻžā§āĨ¤āĻā§āĻĒāϤā§āϤāĻŋ: āϝā§āĻā§āύ⧠āĻŦāϏā§āϤā§āϰ …